The Social Construction of Gender Roles:
"Knowledge and meanings are not stable or constant, they are co-constructed in interactions with others, they are negotiated, modified and shifted. People are active in their perception, understanding and sharing of knowledge acquired from their social milieu. In the end, it is necessary therefore to consider process as the main perspective when explaining the social construction of knowledge, including the knowledge about gender. This focus results in showing how individuals differ in status, entitlement, efficacy, self-respect and other traits based on the kind of interactions one is involved in and subjected to. Social constructionist perspectives tend to be based on social hierarchy and meant to preserve a status or position of influence rather than what is empirically shown to be valid. Children learn at a very early age what it means to be a boy or a girl in our society. Through myriad activities, opportunities, encouragements, discouragements, overt behaviors, covert suggestions, and various forms of guidance, children experience the process of gender role socialization. It is difficult for a child to grow to adulthood without experiencing some form of gender bias or stereotyping, whether it be the expectation that boys are better than girls at math or the idea that only females can nurture children. As children grow and develop, the gender stereotypes they are exposed to at home are reinforced by other elements in their environment and are thus perpetuated throughout childhood and on into adolescence (Martin, Wood, & Little, 1990). A child’s burgeoning sense of self, or self-concept, is a result of the multitude of ideas, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs to which he or she is exposed. The information that surrounds the child and which is internalized comes to the child within the family arena through parent- child interactions, role modeling, reinforcement for desired behaviors, and parental approval or disapproval (Santrock, 1994). As children move into the larger world of friends and school, many of their ideas and beliefs are reinforced by those around them. A further reinforcement of acceptable and appropriate behavior is shown to children through the media, in particular, television. Through all these socialization agents, children learn gender stereotyped behavior. As children develop, these stereotypes become firmly entrenched beliefs and thus, are a part of the child's self-concept."
Gender Dysphoria in Children:
"Children as young as age two may show features that could indicate gender dysphoria. They may express a wish to be of the other sex and be unhappy about their physical sex characteristics and functions. In addition, they may prefer clothes, toys, and games that are commonly associated with the other sex and prefer playing with other-sex peers. There appears to be heterogeneity in these features: Some children demonstrate extremely gender nonconforming behavior and wishes, accompanied by persistent and severe discomfort with their primary sex characteristics. In other children, these characteristics are less intense or only partially present (Cohen-Kettenis et al., 2006; Knudson, De Cuypere, & Bockting, 2010a). It is relatively common for gender dysphoric children to have co-existing internalizing disorders such as anxiety and depression (Cohen-Kettenis, Owen, Kaijser, Bradley, & Zucker, 2003; Wallien, Swaab, & Cohen-Kettenis, 2007; Zucker,Owen, Bradley, & Ameeriar, 2002). The prevalence of autisticspectrum disorders seems to be higher in clinically referred, gender dysphoric children than in the general population (de Vries, Noens, Cohen-Kettenis, van Berckelaer-Onnes, & Doreleijers, 2010). Mental health professionals should not dismiss or express a negative attitude towards nonconforming gender identities or indications of gender dysphoria. Rather, they should acknowledge the presenting concerns of children, adolescents, and their families; offer a thorough assessment for gender dysphoria and any co-existing mental health concerns; and educate clients and their families about therapeutic options, if needed.
Acceptance and removal of secrecy can bring considerable relief to gender dysphoric children/adolescents and their families."
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